Perception and action
76 important questions on Perception and action
To what is activation of dopaminergic neurons tied?
Not to the size of the reward per se, but more closely related to the expectancy of reward.
When are dopaminergic neurons especially active?
When reward is unexpected
Reward prediction error (RPE)
A signal that represents the difference between the obtained reward and the expected reward.
--> when the CS-US events in pavlovian conditioning are repeatedly presented, the dopamine response gradually shifts form the US (bv light) to the CS (bv juice). The spike in dopamine activity = a RPE
--> when the CS-US events in pavlovian conditioning are repeatedly presented, the dopamine response gradually shifts form the US (bv light) to the CS (bv juice). The spike in dopamine activity = a RPE
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A reward is not expected but given, this results in a positive RPE. Why? And what happens next?
Because the obtained award is greater that the expected reward.
Therefore, DA (dopamine) is released.
Therefore, DA (dopamine) is released.
When are positive RPE and dopaminergic responses reduced?
As the expected and obtained values become more similar.
What do GABA neurons to DA (dopamine) neurons?
- They supply them with a signal of reward expectancy.
- DA neurons also receive inputs about the actual reward.
hence, they have an ideal position to calculate RPEs.
- DA neurons also receive inputs about the actual reward.
hence, they have an ideal position to calculate RPEs.
What happens to the dopaminergic repsonse if the CS(conditioned stimulus) is repeatedly withheld?
There is a
- reduction in the size of the increase in the dopaminergic repsonse to the US
- reduction in the size of the decrease in dopaminergic repsonse to the absence of the CS
When the repsonse is no longer produced, it has gone extinct.
- reduction in the size of the increase in the dopaminergic repsonse to the US
- reduction in the size of the decrease in dopaminergic repsonse to the absence of the CS
When the repsonse is no longer produced, it has gone extinct.
Punishment is not the withholding of a reward. It involves the experience of something aversive. In one point however, these two are similar. How?
They ar eboth motivationally salient.
Why is the habenula in good position te represent emotional and motivational events?
; It receives input from the forebrain limbic regions
; It sends inhibitory projections to dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc)
; It sends inhibitory projections to dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc)
The habenula neurons became active for no-reward targets. How come?
Input from the lateral habenula may regulate the reward-related activity of the DA neurons.
DA neurons were excited by reward-predicting targets and suppressed by targets predicting no reward.
DA neurons were excited by reward-predicting targets and suppressed by targets predicting no reward.
Of what is the activity of both the habenula and DA neurons dependent?
Context
With what were positive and negative RPEs of gains and losses correlated?
With activity in the ventral striatum. But the specific striatal region differed for the two conditions.
Where in the the ventral striatum were gains more encoded? And where were losses more encoded?
Gains were more encoded in the more anterior regions.
losses were more encoded in the more posterior regions.
losses were more encoded in the more posterior regions.
There is a brainregion that also responded to prediction error, but only when the choice resulted in a loss. What region was this?
A region in the insula
Berridge suggests that dopaine release is the result, and not the cause of learning. What are his 2 reasons?
1) mice that are genetically unable to synthesisze dopamine can still learn
2) genetically mutant mice with high dopamine levels do not learn faster nor maintain habits longer.
2) genetically mutant mice with high dopamine levels do not learn faster nor maintain habits longer.
Berridge suggests that dopamine neurons do not cause learning by encoding RPEs, but instead.....?
They code the informational consequence of prediction and learning and then do something with the information.
He proposes that dopamine activity is indicative of the salience of a stimulus or an event.
He proposes that dopamine activity is indicative of the salience of a stimulus or an event.
Berridge describes a reward as made up of three dissociable components:
Wanting
learning
liking
learning
liking
Berridge's view is that dopamine only mediates one component. Which one?
Wanting
Dopamine serves multiple functions. Neurophysiologists have described two classes of repsonses based on a recording of DA neurons in the brainstem.
the two classes of responses:
- one subset of dopamine neurons responded regarding valence. These cells increase their firing rate to stimuli that are predictive of reward and decrease their firing rate to aversive stimuli.
- higher number of dopamine neurons were excited by the increased likelihood of any reinforcement, independent of whether it was a reward or a punishment, and mainly when it was unpredictable
- higher number of dopamine neurons were excited by the increased likelihood of any reinforcement, independent of whether it was a reward or a punishment, and mainly when it was unpredictable
What are the 3 components essential for succesfully developing and executing an action plan?
1- identify the goal and develop subgoals
2- in step 1, consequenses must be anticipated
3 - determine what is required to achieve the subgoals.
some of these may have overlap.
2- in step 1, consequenses must be anticipated
3 - determine what is required to achieve the subgoals.
some of these may have overlap.
More anterior regions of the PFC are involved when tasks are more complex. With what hypothesis is this in line? But what might also be?
The hierarchical gradient hypothesis.
but it might be that, rather than reflect a hierarchy, the different activation patterns show that different subregions of PFC are required for things like response selection or rule specification.
but it might be that, rather than reflect a hierarchy, the different activation patterns show that different subregions of PFC are required for things like response selection or rule specification.
What is an essential feature of cognitive control?
The ability to shift our focus from one subgoal to another
What requires complex actions?
That we maintain our current goal,
focusing on the information that is relevant to achieving that goal,
ignore irrelevant information, and, when appropriate, shift from one sub goal to another in a coordinated manner.
focusing on the information that is relevant to achieving that goal,
ignore irrelevant information, and, when appropriate, shift from one sub goal to another in a coordinated manner.
Goal-oriented behavior requires to select task-relevant information and filter out task-irrelevant information.
to what refers selection?
To the ability to focus attention on perceptial features or information in memory
Why is attention necessary in working memory?
Because the person's goals can modify the salience of different sources of information.
As what mechanism is the PFC been conceptualized?
As a dynamic filtering mechanism
How does the dynamic filtering mechanism work?
Reciprocal projections between PFC and posterior cortex provide a way for goals, represented in PFC, to maintain task-relevant information that requires long-term knowledge stored in the posterior cortex.
the PFC applies a dynamic filter to help retrieve and select information that is relevant tot the current tassk requirements.
the PFC applies a dynamic filter to help retrieve and select information that is relevant tot the current tassk requirements.
The loss of dynamic filtering captures an essential feature of prefrontal damage because....?
Patients have difficulty maintaining their focus on a goal
With practice of a dual task, participants become good at performing them in simultaneously with little to no interference.
what are the 2 hypothesis on how we become proficient multitaskers?
1: we learn to segregate the two tasks, doing each in parallel.
2: we become proficient in swithcing from one task to another.
2 is more empirically supported and thus the term multitasking may be misleading.
2: we become proficient in swithcing from one task to another.
2 is more empirically supported and thus the term multitasking may be misleading.
The term multitasking may be misleading, following a hypothesis showed before. What is it what we do then, when we think we're multitasking?
Alternate between tasks, and with practice we can become quite proficient in task switching
What happend when reverberi & colleagues (2005) considered whether the frontal lobes are truly critical for selecting task-relevant information?
Their prediction was confirmen:
patients with LPFC lesions would do better at solving problem tasks with unusual answers because their impaired selection process would make it easier for them to consider atypical actions.
patients with LPFC lesions would do better at solving problem tasks with unusual answers because their impaired selection process would make it easier for them to consider atypical actions.
It may be also relevant to consider when thinking about our maturation process and the fact that the frontal lobes mature late. What may be very adaptive for learning?
Open-mindedness due to lack of prefrontal development
In what 2 distinct ways could dynamic filtering influence the contents of information processing?
1: accentuating the attented information.
2: selectively attent by excluding information from other locations
2: selectively attent by excluding information from other locations
When is it often difficult to distinguish between facilitatory and inhibitory modes of control?
In behavioral tasks.
Where comes evidence for the loss of inhibitory control with frontal dysfunction from?
From electrophysiological studies where participants were presented with tones, and no repsonse was required.
patients with frontal lobe lesions have enhanced evoked responses. The unattended stimulus produces an increased response.
patients with frontal lobe lesions have enhanced evoked responses. The unattended stimulus produces an increased response.
"patients with frontal lobe lesions have enhanced evoked responses. The unattended stimulus produces an increased response" - with what hypothesis is this in line?
In line with the hypothesis that the frontal lobe modulates the salience of perceptual signals byb inhibiting unattended information.
When do primates with prefrontal lesions better on the delayed-response task?
When the room is darkened during relay or when receive drugs decreasing distractibility.
the inhibition of task-irrelevant information might enhance goal-based control
the inhibition of task-irrelevant information might enhance goal-based control
What brain regions are preferentially activated by face and place stimuli?
(from the alinea about primates in the delayed-response task)
Regions in the inferior temporal lobe.
the so called FFA (fusiform face area) and PPA (parahippocampal place area) respectively.
the so called FFA (fusiform face area) and PPA (parahippocampal place area) respectively.
Compared to the passive viewing condition (control), what was the brainresponse in when pp's were instructed to remember the faces and the scene?
The response in the FFA in the right hemisphere was greater at faces, and lower at scenes.
What can the taskgoal modulate? Specified by the instruction
Can modulate perceptual processing by either amplifying task-relevant information or inhibiting task-irrelevant information
Do enhancement and supression involve the same neural mechanisms?
No, different
Inhibition is more sensitive to the effects of aging. Also, since aging is thought to disproportionately affect prefrontal function, what can we say about goal-based control?
Inhibitory goal-based control could perhaps be more dependent on the prefrontal cortex than the attentional mechanisms that underlie the amplification of task-relevant information are.
Goal-based representation in the prefrontal cortex are used to modulate....
How perceptual information is selectively filtered.
What happens when there is TMS over the inferior cortex?
It directly disrupts goal-based selection
What happens when there is TMS over the dorsal frontal cortex?
It produces an indirect benefit in goal-based selection by increasing reliance on the inferior frontal cortex.
What does failures of inhibition lead to?
Greater distractibility, a hallmark of prefrontal dysfunction.
What form of inhibitory control is studied with the stop-signal task?
When you are about to take action and something makes us change our mind.
Patients with lesions of the frontal lobe are slow to abort a planned response (seen in the stop-signal task). Where does this impairment appears to be more specificly?
To lesions of the inferior frontal gyrus on the right side.
What happens in the brain when patients with lesions in the prefrontal lobe are slow to abort a planned response?
eventhough the right PFC generates a stop command, the initial activity in the motor cortex has led to a quick response, preventing abortion of the movement.
the right inferior frontal gyrus pattern of activation was also present in the subthalamic nucleus (STN) of the basal ganglia since it provides a strong excitatory signal to the globus pallidus, helping to maintain inhibition of the cortex.
the right inferior frontal gyrus pattern of activation was also present in the subthalamic nucleus (STN) of the basal ganglia since it provides a strong excitatory signal to the globus pallidus, helping to maintain inhibition of the cortex.
Deep brain stimulation (DBS) can help reduce motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease. But what is a side effect?
It increases impulsivity
What is correlational evidence about what advantage video game players have?
Advantage when it comes to cognitive control and attention tasks.
also:
appeared to be better at dual-task conditions requiring task switching abilities.
actively training using video games has been shown to improve performance on generalitazation tests as well.
also:
appeared to be better at dual-task conditions requiring task switching abilities.
actively training using video games has been shown to improve performance on generalitazation tests as well.
Should grandma and grandpa start gaming?
Yes.
- when getting older, the ability to filter out task-irrelevant information decreases.
- multitask training results in significant improvement in working memory and attention because functional connectivity was increased.
- when getting older, the ability to filter out task-irrelevant information decreases.
- multitask training results in significant improvement in working memory and attention because functional connectivity was increased.
Shallice & Normal developed a psychological model of cognitive control, indication conditions for what systems?
For which actions may require high-level control sustems, or supervisory attentional systems (SAS)
What include the actions of the psychological model of cognitive control (shallice & norman), that require high-level control systems/supervisory attentional systems (SAS)?
- Planning or decision making is required
- responses are novel/not-well learned
- the required response competes with a strong, habitual response
- error correction or troubleshooting is required; or
- the situation is difficult or dangerous
Of what is the MFC (medial frontal cortex), especially the anterior cingulate cortex a critical component, and when is it consistently engaged?
A critical component of a monitoring system.
consistently engaged whenever a task becomes more diffucult, the type of situation in which monitoring demands are likely to be high.
consistently engaged whenever a task becomes more diffucult, the type of situation in which monitoring demands are likely to be high.
The medial frontal cortex exhibits extensive connectivity with a lot of the brain. In what is it a key position?
To influence decision making, goal-oriented behavior, motor control.
Attentional hierarchy hypothesis
It was hypothesized that the medial frontal cortex should be conceptualized as part of an attentional hierarchy, where it
- operates on an upper rung
- playing a critical role in coordinating activity across attention systems.
- operates on an upper rung
- playing a critical role in coordinating activity across attention systems.
What causes selective attention in what brain regions? (attentional hierarchy hypothesis)
Local changes is regions specialized to process certain features.
What does divided attention require?
A higher-level attentional systm:
that stimultaneously monitors information across these specialized modules
that stimultaneously monitors information across these specialized modules
What did a shift in SAS (supervisory attentional system) indicate, about the MFC activity with practice? (attentional hierarchy model)
A loss of novelty rather than a general decrease in the MFC activity with practice.
Evoked-potential studies have shown that the MFC provides an electrophysiological signal correlated with ..?
The occurence of errors
Error related negativity (ERN)
With an incorrect response, a larger (electrophysiological) response results in the PFC after movement initiation, when about the repsonse.
- has been localized to in the anterior cingulate
(check deze FC, blz 63 na in het boek of dit klopt)
- has been localized to in the anterior cingulate
(check deze FC, blz 63 na in het boek of dit klopt)
Feedback related negativity (FRN)
With an incorrect response, a larger (elektrophysiological) response results in the PFC after movement initiation when about the feedback.
- has been localized to in the anterior cingulate.
(check deze FC, blz 63 na in het boek of dit klopt)
- has been localized to in the anterior cingulate.
(check deze FC, blz 63 na in het boek of dit klopt)
What can reactivate the the goal in working memory?
Physiological responses like the ERN (error related negativity)
What can we conclude from the findings about the activity before errors are made?
We can see a shift from the monitoring system to the mind-wandering system, building up until an error is made.
MFC activation is also prominent in tasks with few errors. What's an example?
In the stroop task, activity in the MFC is much higher on incongruent trials compared to congruent trials.
What are especially salient signals of a monitoring system?
The ERN and FRN (error/feedback related negativity).
Is the FRN rather focused on unexpected results or signaling errors?
Unexpected results. Usually, we are surprised when we make an error.
What kind of adjustments may a monitoring system produce?
Moment-to-moment adjustments in processing at the neuronal level to support goal-oriented bahavior.
It was hypothesized that a key function of the medial frontal cortex is to evaluate response conflict:
Difficult and novel situations should engender high response conflict, creating a need for increased attentional vigilance.
= response conflict hypothesis
= response conflict hypothesis
Where was the degree of difficulty for goal selection evident?
In the activation of the lateral prefrontal cortex
What region was sensitive to the degree of response conflict?
Activation of the medial frontal cortex (MFC)
Post-error slowing (PES)
When an error occurs on a reaction time task, pp's slow down.
although this does not seem to be correlated with accuracy.
although this does not seem to be correlated with accuracy.
What decreases and increases after an error (in the PES)?
- decrease in sensitivity to sensory information
- increase in the decision treshold
- increase in the decision treshold
MFC may be doing more than merely monitoring the level of conflict presented by the current environment. What else?
Anticipating the likelihood of conflict, suggesting a risk prediction and error avoidance role.
How would the MFC's risk prediction/error avoidance role work?
- MFC plays regulatory rol in modulating autonomic activity in response to the current context -> providing interface between cognition & arousal.
- this modulation = indirect form of control, linked to regulatory mechanisms in the brainstem rather than through direct interactions with the cognitive representations of the Prefrontalcortex.
- this modulation = indirect form of control, linked to regulatory mechanisms in the brainstem rather than through direct interactions with the cognitive representations of the Prefrontalcortex.
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