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Terrorism: Radicalisation and Violent Extremism

Q: What did Crenshaw (1988) say?

'The actions of terrorists are based on a subjective interpretation of the world rather than objective reality. Perceptions of the political and social environment are filtered through beliefs and attitudes that reflect personal experiences'

37 important questions on Terrorism: Radicalisation and Violent Extremism

Are school shooters terrorists?

School shooters may be politically motivated; however, it doesn’t fall into the branch of terrorism in terms of violent extremism or radicalisation

What are 4 factors helping us understand terrorism?

1. The individual and the processes that characterise involvement for the individual in terrorism
2. The relationship between the individual and his/her political and social context
3. The consequences of terrorism, in terms of how the individual and society might be affected by terrorism
4. The methodological framework in which to study terrorism

What are 2 models of terrorism?

1. Borum's theoretical model of terrorism --> four-stage model framing the process of ideological development (gain an understanding of how extremist ideas develop)
2. Moghaddam's "Staircase to Terrorism" --> portrays terrorism as a process of 6 consecutive steps culminating in terrorism

Do psychiatric disorders increase someone's risk of becoming a terrorist?

NO - this is a common misconception and the research on this area is very limited

What did McCauley (2002) and Sageman (2004) find?

Little evidence suggests psychopathology/mental illness is important for understanding or predicting terrorism

When understanding the contributors to the development of terrorism, what does contemporary research signify the importance of? What are 2 examples of this?

The importance of learning and situational context to behaviour as contributors to the development of terrorism.

Examples
1. Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1990) - Observational learning and social learning by context
2. Cognitive theories (especially from aggression research) - social cognition applies to both terrorists and terrorists organisations (Crenshaw, 1988) (see next flashcard on what Crenshaw, 1988 said)

What did Crenshaw (1988) say?

"The actions of terrorists are based on a subjective interpretation of the world rather than objective reality. Perceptions of the political and social environment are filtered through beliefs and attitudes that reflect personal experiences"

What is the problem with early work on terrorism?

It focuses on why terrorist behaviour occurs rather than asking questions about the behaviour itself

What is a common theme of terrorism?

Gradual socialisation into terrorism
Sense of involvement
Finally, gradual increase in commitment

--> thus group factors are fundamental to terrorism

What can risk factors be split into?

Individual factors
Contextual factors

What are examples of individual risk factors?

experiencing identity conflict
feeling there is a lack of meaning in life
wanting status; wanting to belong
desire for action/adventure
experienced trauma
mental health issues/emotionally unstable/troubled
naive or having little knowledge of religion and ideology
having strong religious beliefs
having grievances
feeling under treat
having an "us versus them" world view
justifying violence or illegal activity as a solution to problems
having engaged in previous criminal activity

What are examples of contextual risk factors?

stressors (e.g. a family crisis, being fired from a job)
societal discrimination or injustice
exposure to violent extremist groups or individuals
exposure to violent extremist belief system or narratives
family members or others in violent extremist network

What does Moghaddam's (2005) "Staircase to Terrorism" assume?

The model rests on the assumption that terrorists are made through the process driven by different psychological factors

Moghaddam (2005, 2006) portrays terrorism as the endpoint of a six step narrowing staircase. What does the concept of a narrowing staircase suggest?

The individual is facing an increasingly limited set of alternatives for action, as s/he moves into the later stages of the model. As the individual continues upwards in the staircase to terrorism, terrorist acts will become more and more pertinent as a choice of action, until terrorism, in the last stage, is seen as the only solution to the individual's perceived problems

Does Moghaddam perceive terrorism to be an irrational emotional impulse?

No - he sees terrorism as a rational choice given the limited range of alternatives for action on the different stages of the model

What can Moghaddam's model be conceptualised as an analogy to?

Classical developmental stage models e.g. Piaget's theory of cognitive development and Kohlberg's Stage-Structural Theory of Moral Reasoning (Locke, 1994)

(Moghaddam's model: the completion of processes of previous steps is both necessary and sufficient to continue upwards towards higher steps (rules out possibility of bypassing steps))

What are the 6 steps of Moghaddam's Staircase to Terrorism?

Step 1 - Psychological interpretation of material conditions and an increasing dissatisfaction with the social world
Step 2 - Perceived options to fight under unfair treatment
Step 3 - Displacement of aggression
Step 4 - Moral engagement
Step 5 - Solidification of categorical thinking and the perceived legitimacy of the terrorist organisation
Step 6 - The terrorist act and sidestepping inhibitory mechanisms

Explain the first step of Moghaddam's (2005, 2006) Staircase to Terrorism. What theory is used in this first step?

Step 1 - Psychological interpretation of material conditions and an increasing dissatisfaction with the social world

If the psychological interpretations of the individual's material conditions result in an experience of injustice, the individual continues to the next step. The individual's motivation to improve living, attain greater justice, and a satisfactory identity, contributes to the movement from the ground floor to the next step.

Relative Deprivation Theory
Relative deprivation = a result of unmet expectations (Moghaddam emphasises perceived deprivation, not actual or absolute deprivation, as a fundamental factor in terrorism)

RDT is important in explaining the continuing movement up the Staircase to Terrorism

Explain the third step of Moghaddam's (2005, 2006) Staircase to Terrorism.

Step 3 - Displacement of aggression
---> through displacement of aggression individuals direct anger and frustration towards an external enemy, perceived to be responsible for the individual's poor situation

Explain the forth step of Moghaddam's (2005, 2006) Staircase to Terrorism.

Step 4 - Moral engagement--> the individual enters the terrorist group and gradually engages in the moral reasoning and rationale of the terrorist organisation, and disengages from the government's moral guidelines

Similar to religious groups and sport teams, terrorist organisations offer a sense of belonging and identity

Moghaddam also emphasises disengagement from inhibitory mechanisms + a rigid mental divide between "us" and "them"/in-group and out-group - this divide resembles the process of dehumanisation of the out-group

Explain the fifth step of Moghaddam's (2005, 2006) Staircase to Terrorism.

Step 6 - The terrorist act and sidestepping inhibitory mechanisms
Moghaddam (2005, 2006) proposes two main mechanisms contributing to the avoidance of inhibitory mechanisms: social categorisation and psychological distance
-> this allows terrorists to psychologically distance themselves from the people they intend to harm. Obedience and conformity is crucial on this step

What are the individual protective factors?

having self-esteem
having strong ties in the community
having a nuanced understanding of religion and ideology

What are contextual protective factors?

parental involvement in an individual's life
exposure to nonviolent belief systems and narratives
a diversity of nonviolent outlets for addressing grievances
societal inclusion and integration
resources to address trauma and mental health issues

Terrorism has actually decreased since the 70s, so why does it seem like it has increased?

There is more of an awareness of what’s going on because of media, social media etc.

What does Silke (2001) say is the problem with with research on terrorism?

The field is characterised my by weak research methods and lack of cumulative findings

When learning about terrorism, what should researchers consider?

They should not only consider the specific ideology of those who commit or advocate acts of terrorism but also gain an understanding of the process of how these ideas or doctrines develop

What is the first step of Borum's theoretical model of terrorism?

Step 1 - Social and Economic Deprivation --> an extremist individual/group identifies an undesirable event/condition ("it's not right"). This could be, for example, economic (e.g. poverty, unemployment, poor living conditions) or social (e.g. government-imposed restrictions on individual freedoms, lack of order or morality)

What is the second step of Borum's theoretical model of terrorism?

Step 2 - Inequality and Resentment--> they frame the undesirable as an injustice; that is, it does not apply to everyone ("it's not fair")

What is the third step of Borum's theoretical model of terrorism?

Step 3 - Blame/Attribution--> extremists hold a person or group responsible for their injustice, identifying a potential target ("it's your fault")

What is the forth step of Borum's theoretical model of terrorism?

Step 4 - Generalising/ Stereotyping; Dehumanising/Demonising the Enemy (Cause) --> they deem the person/group responsible for the injustice as bad ("you're evil")

This has 3 effects that help facilitate violence:

aggression becomes more justifiable when aimed against "bad" people, particularly those who intentionally cause harm to others
dehumanising a target further facilitates aggression
those suffering adverse conditions at the hands of others do not see themselves as "bad" or "evil" - this further identifies the responsible person/group as different to those affected = makes justifying aggression easier

What is the current policy for terrorism? What is a better policy? Who proposed this?

The current policy of focusing on individuals already at the top of the staircase brings only short-term gains. The best long-term policy against terrorism is prevention, which is made possible by nourishing contextualized democracy on the ground floor.

Moghaddam, 2005

(own reading)

What did Horgan (2003) state?

Attempts to find a specific terrorist personality or even a consistent useful profile of psychological characteristics have been unsuccessful

(own reading)

What are the 3 psychological vulnerabilities that have been observed among violent extremists? Who was this proposed by?

Borum (2004, 2011)

A need for personal meaning and identity
A need for belonging
Perceived injustice/humiliation

-> these vulnerabilities can increase a person's receptivity to imposed ideas and influence

Why is the need for belonging such a powerful vulnerability?

The void resulting from its absence creates a psychological vulnerability to exploitation to groups that offers acceptance and security (Borum, 2014)

What did Tausch et al. (2009) find?

There is no statistical relationship between Muslim identity and the opinion that the actions of the 7/7 bombings were justified

-> this suggests that strength of Islamic identity is not correlated with support or engagement in terrorist activities

What did Kleinmann (2012) find?

That only 7% of individuals involved in terrorist plots had mental health issues

What did Atran (2010) find?

Global polls from organisations like Pew and Gallup suggests tens of millions of Muslims worldwide are sympathetic to militant "jihadi aspirations" through only a minuscule minority ever engages in violence

= terrorism and radical ideas are not coterminous i.e. people can radicalise without becoming terrorists

(own reading)

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Forensic Psychology

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