Geology
66 important questions on Geology
New hypotheses not accepted without consideration by peers, rigorous testing
-Challenging concept
-Ultimate challenge - determine the age of Earth
-Many ideas based in religion and philosophy
-Scientific evidence --> the rock record
Radioactive decay rates of about ___elements found on Earth, Moon, and Asteroids
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-Rocks can be ordered
-Rocks can be interpreted
-Rocks can be dated
At __ Ma, visible life appears in the rock record
-Life becomes increasingly diverse (and bigger), moves onto land
-Lifestyles of modern organisms begin to appear
-Multi-cellular organisms with shells and claws
-Predator-prey relationships recorded in fossils
-Preserves fossils of small organisms
-Primary producers - oxygen becomes available in seawater
-Hold no evidence of any life
-Deformed rocks of the Archean Eon, when Earth was lifeless and devoid of free oxygen
After 65 Ma, _____ take over after global catastrophe
Rocks in ND hold an excellent record of ____ _____ and ______ ______ between 55 and 25 Ma ago
The rock records is where information for ____ _____, ___ ____, and ___ comes from
The most abundant rocks and minerals consist of the most abundant _____
A mineral based on Si + O is a
Quartz is composed of the two most common elements
Feldspars Si and O with the addition of K, Al, Na, Ca
Almost as durable as quartz
-Common in almost all rock types
-Very hard and very durable
Quartz, potassium feldspar, muscovite
-MOST stable at Earth surface, LIGHT in color, MORE silicon and aluminum
Biotite, olivine, pryoxene, amphibole
-LESS stable at Earth surface, DARK in color, LESS silicon and aluminum
Product of cooling/freezing of liquid rock both above and below ground
Fragments of rock - sediment - being compressed and cemented (or minerals being precipitated)
Form when rocks are heated and squeezed so that structure/composition change
______ igneous cool slowly and minerals have time to grow large, visible mineral crystals
______ igneous rocks cool quickly and minerals have NO TIME to grow. (mostly) invisible minerals crystals
Silica ____ than ~60% creates fluid flows
-Flows can be so calm that you can walk up to some
Silica ____ than ~60% creates explosive eruptions
-Gases are trapped up in high Si magma, escapes at eruption
____ sedimentary rocks are composed of fragments of other rocks
-Subdivided by grain size
Fragments >2 mm
-The pebbles are clearly visible to the eye
Rocks comprised of CaCo3 (limestone)
1. Precipitate directly from seawater
2. Accumulations of animal shells
What is an example of a carbonate rock?
Precipitate from evaporating seawater or lake water
What is an example of an evaporite mineral?
Evaporation of saturated water (3)
2. Sulfate
3. Crystalline
____ and _____ cause new minerals to grow without melting
Wegner's observations and other ideas:
-Discontinuous mountain belts
-Fossils of terrestrial organisms on separate continents
Adding to Wegner's observations made during WWII
The magnetic field of Earth flips usually ___ or ___ switches/million years. Well-studied phenomenon
Mantle plume rises, molten material crystallizes to form ____
New (young) rocks forming at _____, old rocks drifting away from it
Plates are crashing into each other over the sinking arm of a mantle convection cell
- 5-10 km of mafic igneous rock, sediments on top
- Greater density (3.0 g/cc)
- Hot near MORs, colder and denser away from them
- 30-50 km of felsic rock
- Lower density (2.7 g/cc)
- More buoyant and difficult to recycle at plate boundary
1. The older, colder oceanic crust sinks - S zone
2. Forms a deep trench on the ocean floor
3. Subduction cause melting
4. A chain of volcanic island results
1. Neither crustal plate sinks
2. Massive mountain ranges develop
1. Crust of Earth broken into plates
2. Plates riding on convection cells in the mantle
3. New oceanic crust created at a rising arm/MOR
4. Oceanic crust destroyed at subduction zone
5. Plate growth/destruction happens at margins
-Sedimentary rocks are deposited on top of one another
-Form in environments similar to those where sediments (detrital and carbonates) are deposited today
Layer at top is youngest, layer at bottom is the oldest
Sediments are deposited horizontally, then compressed to form sedimentary rocks
Layers of sediments initially extend laterally in all directions
-Some rock layers do not conform with neighboring layers
-Rocks can have inclusions of other, older rocks
-Fossils preserved in rocks record life when the rocks formed
Fragments of rock present in a rock are older than that rock
Oldest fossils preserved in oldest rocks, younger fossils in younger rocks
Layers of material that form at a known rate and can be used to determine an absolute age
Example 1 of countable layers:
pairs of growth bands form every year
-Oldest about 5,000 years
Example 2 of countable layers:
Counting layers in sediment cores indicates that these have existed for 20,000 years
Example 3 of countable layers:
Pairs of light and dark bands represent one year
-Counting layers in cores indicate that it is at least 850,000 years old
Example 4 of countable layers:
Growth layers of this age up to 2 million years old
Stable or unstable versions of elements
Carbon atoms with ___ or ___ neutrons are stable, they will last forever
The old atom was a _____
Radioactive decay of parent to daughter isotopes rate is _______ over long time intervals
Igneous rock/crystal becomes "____" when it solidifies
Eons - Three that span all of Earth history
Proterozoic (earlier life)
Archean (beginning)
Ends with major extinction event:
-All dinosaurs except birds
-All large marine reptiles
-All flying reptiles
-Several mammal groups
Extinction: 90% of all marine species, 70% of terrestrial; only extinction event to ever hit insects; largest of all time (so far)
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