Hydrometerologogy
13 important questions on Hydrometerologogy
- What physical processes lead to precipitation?
- What is the adiabatic lapse rate?
- Is it constant/always the same?
- What is the Föhn wind/effect and how does it work?
- What factors control the amount of annual precipitation?
- Warm, moist air rises → adiabatic cooling → reaches dew point → condensation → precipitation
- Rate of change of air temperature with altitude
- Depends on the humidity
- Dry adiabatic lapse rate: 1°C / 100 m
- Wet adiabatic lapse rate: 0,5°C / 100 m (release of latent heat)
- Weather phenomenon associated with orographic lifting
- Air streams against mountain
- Air rises, cools and forms clouds
- Cloud formation heats the air (release of latent heat)
- Warm, dry air blowing down leeside of the mountain
Continentally → distance from major moisture sources
Topography → orographic effects and rain shadowing
Maritime vs continental climate?
- proximity to moisture source
- heavy precipitation (orographic effects)
- relatively mild winters
Continental climate (Eastern Norway)
- inland location
- low precipitation (rain shadowing)
- warm sommer, cold winters
Climate vs weather? How to define and characterize/describe?
- Air temperature and humidity
- Air pressure
- Wind speed and direction
- Cloudiness
- Precipitation
Climate → average weather in a specific area measured over a period of 30 years
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Water can be stored in the atmosphere in different phases:
What are these phases and what happens under phase transitions?
- Vapor in form of humidity
- Liquid droplets in form of clouds and rain
- Ice / hail in clouds
Melting and evaporation consumes latent heat.
Freezing and condensation releases latent heat.
What variables are monitored by automatic weather stations?
- Air pressure (barometer)
- Air temperature (thermometer)
- at 2 m height, radiation shield
- Relative humidity (hygrometer)
- Wind direction and speed (anemometer)
- 10 m height
- Precipitation (rain gauge, snow pillow)
- volume or weight of precipitation
- Radiation (pyranometer)
- Incoming & outgoing short- and longwave radiation
How can we estimate/measure precipitation?Point measurement(s) -> spatial distributed; area representative mean?
Interpolation between measurement points
Weather radar reveal distribution of rain but uncertain about amount of rain
What is evapotranspiration?Difference between potential and actual evapotranspiration?
Sum of evaporation from open water, sois, etc. and transpiration from plants
Potential ET → Maximum of achievable ET with unlimited soil moisture supply but limited energy → Dependent on temp., solar radiation, wind speed and relative humidity
Actual ET (≤ Potential ET) → Limited by energy and moisture supply
Can be estimated through water budget equation: P = ET + R
What is meant by the “albedo” of a surface?
Provide some examples for various surfaces!
Albedo → reflectivity of surfaces
Albedo effect → solar radiation is reflected back to space and doesn't warm up the surface
Snow and ice have a relatively high albedo → Melting glaciers and ice sheets → water and soil emerge (low albedo)
Dry snow ~ 90%
Clean ice ~ 50%
Water 10%
How does the seasonal snow cover affect the hydrograph of a catchment?
Effects of Climate Change:
- Greater randomness of winter discharge (more rain events instead of snow)
- Increased winter discharge (rain and snowmelt)
- Earlier snowmelt (and peak discharge) → reduced flow in summer (no snow left to melt)
Describe the approaches to estimate snow melt
→ relationship between temperature and melt-rate based on observations
Surface energy balance (physical approach)
Explain the processes that lead to snowmelt and runoff!
- Warming phase
Absorbed energy raises average snowpack temperature of 0°C (snowpack is isothermal) - Ripening phase
Absorbed energy melts the now, but meltwater is retained in snowpack until it is saturated
Further absorption of energy produces water output as runoff, infiltration or evaporation
What happens when it rains on snow?
How much water is in the snow? What does snow water equivalent means?
If you took a height of snow and melted it, the height of the water created is SWE.
SWE = d * ρsnow / ρwater
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