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16 important questions on Additional literature

What are normative judgments?

Claims that state or imply that something is good or bad, right or wrong etc. Normative judgments therefore express value: they indicate a person's favorable or unfavorable attitude toward some state of affairs. This is in contrast with neutral remarks, like definitions.

On what is a moral judgment based?

On moral standards, each society has its own moral standards which influence legislation.

Thus, a moral judgment has to be based on moral standards. What happens if I have identified my moral standard?

Then I have to analyse the situation on which I would like to give my comment. That should be as factual and only descriptive as possible. Then I could go to the third step: give my moral judgment on the situation.

Ethics is dealing with questions about good and evil, what's business ethics about?

Good and evil within private organizations, it will try to reflect on your behavior (or the behavior of the organisation).

Describe the 3 ethical bases on which we can judge actions?

1 Consequentialism: if the consequences of an action seem to be positive, then it is a moral action

2 Deontology: deontologists are not interested in consequences, but think that the motivates are important for our judgment.

3 Virtue ethics: focusing on the generally accepted virtues, an action that corresponds to these virtues is morally acceptable.

The 3 mainstreams mentioned above play an important role in ethical discussions. Describe which streams are discussed and what belongs to what:

-Consequentialism = utilitarianism, liberalism, libertarians, Marxism

-Deontology = Kant

-Virtue ethics = Artistole and communitarianism (MacIntyre and Sandel)

In short: Utilitarianism = a decision is considered right when the consequences will cause more happiness (greatest happiness for the biggest group). Name the 4 problems with this: (misi)

1 Not everything can easily be translated into money (f.e. pinto case)

2 Harming individual right's (f.e. violation of privacy with camera's)

3 Availability of information (f.e. buyers Pinto didn't know unsafe)

4 Not including sources of pleasure/utility, only consequence: they don't say anything about the way we might have received the pleasure (f.e. using drugs gives pleasure: not everyone will support this)

Liberalism: The theory of Rawls (theory of justice) is based on the contract theory introduced by Locke: a virtual contract, in reality nobody had signed it, but it still has power over citizens). In which way used Rawls the contract theory?

He adds his 'veil of ignorance' to prove that people will act differently when they are not aware of their abilities/talents etc. Rawls states that a contract should be based on reciprocity and mutual consent. Everybody agrees with this, but it's difficult to fulfill these criteria. To give everyone an equal starting point they should wear the 'veil' to abandon his original position and in this way try to answer 'what is justice'?

Rawls (liberalism) identified that the distribution of basic rights should be equal: everybody should have to same right to freedom of religion, opinion etc. This principle should have priority over attempts to maximize our welfare. Which principle did Rawl introduce to accept some inequalities?

The difference principle: only those social and economic inequalities are permitted that work to the benefit of the least advantaged of society.

Deontologists: ask what the intention of the action is. Our juridical system is more or less based on deontology/based on Kantian ethics. Which two imperatives distinguishes Kant?

-Categorical: this one is a universal law: relevant in all situations and should be obeyed under all kinds of circumstances.

-Hypothetical: depends on specific situations and is instrumental: we would like to reach our goal, this imperative is not an end in itself.

The categorical imperative of Kant is unconditional/universal. Reason is the source of my categorical imperative. Explain two characteristics:

1 Universalize your maxim. Maxim = motive or principle which has given you the reason of your action.

2 Use human rational beings as an end in itself and don't use them as an instrument or a mean.

Kant: freedom means that I will decide what is going to happen. If reason determines my will, than the will becomes the power to choose, If I didn't choose my desires freely, how can I think as myself as free when I am pursuing my desires? Autonomy and heteronomy play an important role. Explain:

-Autonomy: man is autonomous when he is in all freedom when he is acting and deciding (he isn't forced, he feels the duty to behave in that way). A moral person can only be moral responsible when he's autonomous.

-Heteronomy: a person is more or less forced by external factors to act or decide. It's not entirely his free will.

F.e. in the bus: child get's up - by herself - for an old lady = autonomous (Kant's favorite). But when she get's up when here father tells her so: heteronomy (utilitarian are positive about this).

Marx' ideas where the opposite of the utilitarians, why?

Utilitarians supported capitalism. Marx claimed capitalism created unjust. The industrialisation was based on the capitalist system. The proces caused alienation: workers weren't allowed to do what their nature told them to do: develop your productive potential in your own way and satisfy your human needs.

Marx distinguished the economic substructure and the social superstructure. Explain those structures:

1 Economic: will be determined by the materials and the social controls that society uses to produce it economic goods: the owners of the materials, the social power to command others.

2 Social: the government and its popular ideologies. This ruling class created by the economic substructure will inevitably control this superstructure.

> According to Marx, all changes in society are ultimately produced by changes in society's forces of production. New classes will emerge in the economic substructure and will consequently change the social superstructure.

According to Marx, during the industrialization the workers are forced to produce massive amounts of goods. This process will lead to 3 tendencies of immiseration. Which 3? (pmc)

1 Increasing concentration of industrial power: big companies will take over the small ones and control the industry.

2 Repeated cycles of economic downturns due to overproduction (too many products, prices fall down: depression)

3 Due to self-interest of the owners they will go for higher profits: replacing men by machines: level of unemployment will rise: lead to lowering of wages.

> Those 3 effects will lead to the immiseration of workers (f.e. smaller supermarkets in small villages disappear because of big supermarkets)

Virtue ethics started with Aristotle and still is growing in importance. Explain the meaning of norms, values and virtues:

-Norms: exact rules, tells us what to do.

-Values: the opposite of norms. They are formulated in a positive way: a goal to strive to.

-Virtue is more concrete than values and more sensible than norms. It is a connecting concept between norms and values. Perhaps via virtues values can be realized, without developing norms and legislation.

The question on the page originate from the summary of the following study material:

Justice : what's the right thing to do? | 9780141041339 | Michael J Sandel

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Additional literature

16 important questions on Additional literature

What are normative judgments?

On what is a moral judgment based?

Thus, a moral judgment has to be based on moral standards. What happens if I have identified my moral standard?

Ethics is dealing with questions about good and evil, what's business ethics about?

Describe the 3 ethical bases on which we can judge actions?

The 3 mainstreams mentioned above play an important role in ethical discussions. Describe which streams are discussed and what belongs to what:

In short: Utilitarianism = a decision is considered right when the consequences will cause more happiness (greatest happiness for the biggest group). Name the 4 problems with this: (misi)

Liberalism: The theory of Rawls (theory of justice) is based on the contract theory introduced by Locke: a virtual contract, in reality nobody had signed it, but it still has power over citizens). In which way used Rawls the contract theory?

Rawls (liberalism) identified that the distribution of basic rights should be equal: everybody should have to same right to freedom of religion, opinion etc. This principle should have priority over attempts to maximize our welfare. Which principle did Rawl introduce to accept some inequalities?

Deontologists: ask what the intention of the action is. Our juridical system is more or less based on deontology/based on Kantian ethics. Which two imperatives distinguishes Kant?

The categorical imperative of Kant is unconditional/universal. Reason is the source of my categorical imperative. Explain two characteristics:

Kant: freedom means that I will decide what is going to happen. If reason determines my will, than the will becomes the power to choose, If I didn't choose my desires freely, how can I think as myself as free when I am pursuing my desires? Autonomy and heteronomy play an important role. Explain:

Marx' ideas where the opposite of the utilitarians, why?

Marx distinguished the economic substructure and the social superstructure. Explain those structures:

According to Marx, during the industrialization the workers are forced to produce massive amounts of goods. This process will lead to 3 tendencies of immiseration. Which 3? (pmc)

Virtue ethics started with Aristotle and still is growing in importance. Explain the meaning of norms, values and virtues:

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