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L6, Culture, advertising and consumption

Q: What is a brand? And branding?

A brand is a commercially developed symbol. Branding is the creation and promotion of these symbols. Companies want to crate attractive and easily recognisable symbols that we associate with compelling values. Manipulated and also free of choice in consumption.

Q: How could language be divided in 2 parts according to De Saussure?

1 langue : general rules and codes – a language 2 parole : the actual act of speaking or writing One cannot speak to others without sharing the same system of langue; langue makes parole meaningful. You are born into a language, which is a social phenomenon and learned through society and codes

Q: What two different signs did Hall distinguish Hall? Explain.

1 iconic signs : visual sings, resembling an object 2 indexical signs : written or spoken signs that have no obvious relationship with the things they refer to if you have never seen it (nespresso machine vs nespresso logo)

52 important questions on L6, Culture, advertising and consumption

What is a brand? And branding?

A brand is a commercially developed symbol. Branding is the creation and promotion of these symbols. Companies want to crate attractive and easily recognisable symbols that we associate with compelling values.

Manipulated and also free of choice in consumption.

What is an important theory regarding signs and semiotics? (De Saussure)

Semiotics is the study of signs. The sign is composed of the signifier and the signified.
The signifier: the form which the sign takes. E.g. the swoosh
The signified: the concept the sign represents including associated meanings in our brains. E.g. Nike, just do it
In the sign the signifier and the signified come together.

Thus, “the sign is the union of a form which signifies
(signifier) and an idea signified (signified). Though we may
speak as if they are separate entities, they exist only as
components of the sign [which is] the central fact of language”
(Culler, 1976, p. 19)

(Culler, 1976, p

How could the relation between the signifier and the signified be described?

The relation between signifier and signified is not natural, it is socially constructed. Especially the signified, meanings etc, can change through culture, history, time and place. (e.g. being gay (rainbow flag))

Why are receivers of signs equally important as senders?

Meaning is never fixed or true (the unfixing is breaking tie between signifier and signified).

As receiver you interpret the sign and meaning and therefore have influence, if you do not understand the sing the ‘’right’’ way/it is intended it is meaningless.

What are binaries according to De Saussure?

Binaries or binary oppositions are words of which a meaning or concept is defined in relation to its direct opposite (rich and poor, good and bad).

They could also represent a notion of dominance.

How could language be divided in 2 parts according to De Saussure?

1 langue: general rules and codes – a language
2 parole: the actual act of speaking or writing

One cannot speak to others without sharing the same system of langue; langue makes parole meaningful.

You are born into a language, which is a social phenomenon and learned through society and codes

What is representation according to Hall?

Giving meaning to things through language, because of this we can communicate. Production of the meaning of concepts in our minds through language, picture table > this is a table (could also be more abstract. Related to the constructionist approach.

What are conceptual maps?

Because of our conceptual map we are able to recognise things. Concepts in our mind are sparked when we see something that we associate with that concept.

What is the cultural code?

A correlation between our conceptual map and language system.

correlatie is de samenhang tussen twee zaken.

What two different signs did Hall distinguish Hall? Explain.

1 iconic signs: visual sings, resembling an object

2 indexical signs: written or spoken signs that have no obvious relationship with the things they refer to if you have never seen it

(nespresso machine vs nespresso logo)

How is the meaning of signs determined?

Signs are arbitrary, which means there is no natural relationship between a sign and its meaning. Meaning depends on the relation between a sign and a concept, which is fixed by a code.

>> the meaning of signs is fixed by cultural code, but because the cultural code can change - the meaning of a sign can also change = link with social constructivism; it is created by society, not natural.

What is social constructionism? (constructionist approach)

A perspective that questions whether many take-for-granted features of our social world are natural or inherent. A social constructionist viewpoint suggests that many features of individuals, groups, cultures and organizations are shaped by social processes that vary over time and across contexts.

What is dominant cultural order?

It is a shared, advertised meaning of signs causing a dominant view. This could eventually change e.g. smoking (dv: very good, now dv: very bad)

How could media portray meanings and representation?

Media often represent ideologies (= a set of beliefs that form a loose set of related ideas, that are in some sense distorted or false).

Media create the conditions for representation.

Those with power are close to mass media and can portray meaning, since they control the means of signification.

What are 4 linguistic and cultural codes that audiences use to read media messages?

1 dominant/hegemonic code: audiences receive as straight reflection of reality, no critical reflexivity – not the case

2 professional code: advertising that complies with the dominant code

3 negotiated code: messages are interpreted differently depending on your life circumstances (situated logics)

4 oppositional code: audience is very aware that messages are ideological and argue with it (give oppositional reading, they compel us to dominant meanings

Negotiated > given an oppositional reading (George Floyd)

What is the difference between subculture and dominant culture when discussing advertising?

Members of a subculture have access to 2 sets of cultural models while members of the dominant culture have access to only one cultural model.

Cultural models are used as positive self-referencing by advertisers and influence the interpretation of advertisements.

What are the two divergent views about the impact of advertisements on society? And what do advertisers think?

1 life patterns of a society are controlled and moulded by advertisements

2 advertisements are a reflection of society and represents what already exists

Advertisers: advertising expands consumer choice, generates employment, encourages product development, technologies and production.

Why is dominant meaning not coercive (dwingend)?

It is not one-sided, since meaning is meaningless if there are no receivers. It is a subtle process put into our minds by messages daily, since recognition is needed for a media message to be interpreted as intended. However, audiences are not just passive consumers anymore

For what are advertisements used and what is their main aim?

They are used to introduce new products and create strong brands on the market, and also to target customers and explain benefits. The main aim is to make a product familiar and memorable in the mind of customers in an effective manner.

Okazaki et al: Why is there variation in consumers’ interpretations of (visual) advertising?

This is due to cultural factors. Cultural competencies and the consumer’s frame of reference, shaped by beliefs, values and traditions, that help them interpret advertising.

Fowles: How could advertising be seen as negative?

As creator of false needs, promoting materialism, promoting everlasting dissatisfaction and anxiety.

What is culture according to the book?

Culture is a collective programming of the mind and an interactive aggregate of common characteristics which influence a group’s response to its environment and distinguish it from another group. It regulates human behaviour.

What other dimension can influence the evaluation or processing of advertising?

Individualism vs collectivism. Individualism beliefs people are responsible for themselves and collectivism is about group cohesion and solidarity.

Why is gender imagery often used?

To capture the audience’s attention and to positively link their products with the feeling of their targeted group. However, it often heavily relies on gender stereotypes (general beliefs about the role and behaviour of genders).

Now the role of women has changed, but not in portrayal advertising yet.

What are cultural codes?

Sets of rules that govern behaviour in society and which are shared by people in a given culture.

Baumann: How have gender differences been formed?

They are a product of ritualized performance in a society. Society defines the rights, responsibilities and identities of each gender.

In what way do advertisers reinforce hegemonic (leidende) gender ideologies as a societal norm, whilst trying to sell their own products?

They persuade people to buy their products to achieve desirable versions of masculinity and femininity, whilst they mainly try to sell their product.

What is described with the “mould argument”? (Academic position 2)

It assumes that the values and behaviour of the audience are shaped and moulded by advertisements and that gender roles can be taught through media exposure (like cultivation theory)

What has been promoted by presenting distorted body images as the aesthetic norm in advertising?

Sexism. Sexism is the depiction of women in advertising in an inferior way regardless of their potential and capabilities.

What are 2 types sexism of manifested in female stereotyped roles?

1 Hostile sexism: characterizes women as weak and vulnerable.

2 benevolent sexism: subtle form – feeling of protectiveness and affection towards women, promotes a decorative and submissive role.

Ritzer: What is McDonaldization?

The process by which the values of fast-food restaurants gain importance in al sectors and fields of contemporary societies. It also concerns activities and spheres other than fast food.

When is an advertisement effective?

They explain the benefits of the product in such a way that it not only creates awareness but also changes people’s perceptions which helps repeat purchase decisions.

How did the global consumer culture emerge?

Market globalization, therefore globally shared consumption- related symbols like brands, product categories and consumption activities were put into place.

Why would one use globalized advertisements and why would one not?

In favor of using: the world has become one large market where the needs and desires of consumers around the globe are growing more uniform.

Not in favor: despite globalization of needs/desires, satisfying these varies for each country due to differences in customs, lifestyles and economies.

What are two cognitive thinking styles and their differences?

Holistic thinking: focuses more on context (east Asian) / Analytical thinking: attribute-oriented and focuses on assigning attributes of an object to a category (Western).

How does culture affect advertising?

Values, norms and beliefs of a society affect the buying patterns of that particular society.

Why is the linking of advertising and popular culture criticized?

It blurs the boundaries between reality and fiction, thereby moulding consumers’ consciousness and instilling in them the desire of false needs.

Also, the use of familiar symbols form popular culture is used to manipulate the sensibilities and emotions of consumers.

Why do advertisers use symbolic material from popular culture to promote products and communicate its message in a more effective manner?

The symbolic material of popular culture is widely recognized and understood by a broader section of the population in any given society, which will make it more recognisable. (through reality engineering; use of images from popular culture, so it is familiar and consumers can construct their own social identity)

How is the meaning of advertisements created?

Through the reception by an audience.

The audience puts bits of information in a specific context by using commonly shared cultural knowledge. Images are often used to be persuasive and convey meaning, which can be (culturally) decoded by the audience.

What has cultural globalization resulted in?

Cultural globalization has resulted in the faster exchange of cultural symbols among the global communities due to technology and mass media

What is cultural globalization dependent upon?

It is dependent upon shared cultural symbols (such as brands).

What should be understood in order to set up successful communication?

- The consumer’s frame of reference; beliefs, values, traditions, cultural values etc.

Advertisers promote solution to wants/needs by adjusting it to the lifestyle of the audience. Different types of appeal are used for different types of product, depending upon product use conditions.

Goffman: What is described with the “mirror effect”? (academic position 1)

The “mirror effect” invokes the idea that advertisers adopt more widely accepted ideas about gender roles. It argues that advertising shows a stylized performance of conventional gender roles: gender display.

Advertisers conventionalize our conventions and stylize what is already a stylization.

Culture plays an important role in regulating human behavior. What was Hofstede's definition of culture?

Culture is a collective programming of the mind and an interactive
aggregate of common characteristics which influence a group’s response to its environment and distinguish it from another group (Hofstede, 2001).

The socio-cultural milieu of consumers influences the meaning and interpretations drawn from an advertisement by decoding them. There is also a difference in consumers’ interpretation of culture-specific communication patterns used in advertising, depending partly on their knowledge of signs and symbols drawn mainly from the culture or subculture of a society. Members of the same culture normally share cultural competencies, which help them in their interpretation of advertising and their understanding of brands. - How do consumers decode advertisements and how can advertisers set up successful communication in that light?

Consumers make sense of the product by linking it with their own ideological knowledge about the product grounded in linguistic, literary and cultural traditions. So there is variation in consumers’ interpretations of visually complex advertising due to cultural factors (Okazaki, Müller, & Diehl, 2013). In order to set up successful communication, it is important for advertisers to understand the consumers’ frame of reference, which is mainly shaped by beliefs, values, traditions and other cultural factors.

Individualism vs Collectivism, and their role in advertising.

- Individualism has its roots in the belief that people are responsible for themselves.

- Collectivism is characterized by group cohesion as well as enforced group solidarity, decisions and obligations.

Individual values in individualist versus collectivist cultures affect the evaluation or processing of advertising. It is easier to activate highly internalized cultural values, perhaps because they are frequently reinforced. The content of advertisements can stimulate shared cultural values (Hofstede, 2001).

What can you tell about the ''mirror argument'' and gender display, discussed by Goffman?

The “mirror argument” invokes the idea that advertisers just “conventionalize our conventions, stylize what is already a stylization” (Goffman, 1979 [1951], p. 84). According to this position, advertisers adopt more widely accepted ideas about gender roles. One of the most cited scholars on media and gender advertisement, Goffman (1979) concluded that gender differences
find their purest expression in advertising through gender displays, creating a pseudo-reality by careful selection of models and settings of advertisement. Gender display refers to stylized performance of conventional gender roles.

For better understanding read p.58/59.

Advertisers use their social knowledge to construct ideals of masculinity and femininity, to introduce these socially desirable qualities into products and to persuade people to buy their products to achieve desirable versions of masculinity and femininity. How did this influence consumption by men (or women)?

Although the main purpose of the advertiser is to sell their own products, they reinforce hegemonic gender ideologies as a societal norm by doing so. During the 1980s the commercial culture in the west introduced a new discourse of consumption
based upon branded masculinity, focusing more on appearance
and grooming and making men more conscious about their bodies, which has been called “bigorexia” or the Adonis complex.

What can you tell about the four basic categories in advertising, when we look at advertisements in the light of advertising and cognitive styles?

However, informational and transformational advertisements need not be in binary opposition; rather an advert could be classified into one of four basic categories:
1) high transformation/low information,
2) low transformation/high information,
3) high transformation/ high information, or the integrated approach, and
4) low transformation/ low information. Few adverts belong to the fourth category (Cui, Liu, Yang, & Wang, 2013).

Consumptions patterns are suggested by advertisements, adopting the consumption behavior is a choice of consumers. (remember that)

Check during lecture if this is mentioned or gets specific attention

Which three approaches to representations are mentioned in Hall's (1997) chapter on representation?

Here we will be drawing a distinction between three different accounts or theories: the reflective, the intentional and the constructionist approaches to representation.

- Does language simply reflect a meaning which already exists out there in the world of objects, people and events (reflective)?

- Does language express only what the speaker or writer or painter wants to say, his or her personally intended meaning (intentional)?

- Or is meaning constructed in and through language (constructionist)?

First system of representations - conceptual map (see p. 3 + 4)

The point here is that we are talking about not just a random collection of concepts, but concepts organized, arranged and classified into complex relations with one another. That is what our conceptual system actually is like. However, this does not undermine the basic point. Meaning depends on the relation- ship between things in the world – people, objects and events, real or fictional – and the conceptual system, which can operate as mental representations of them.

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Lifestyle and consumption

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