Circadian rhythm

24 important questions on Circadian rhythm

What are the main conclusions of isolation experiments?

When the external cues are removed, a subject operates according to its own endogenous rhythm. This is what we call an 'internal' clocks. External sources help to synchronize this internal clock with the real world.

When is the circadian rhythm of a baby developed?

After ±4 months

What is meant with a zeitgeber?

The external stimulus (mainly darkness) that entrains our internal clock to be 24 hours.
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Where in mammals is the information from the retina about the ambient light level processed?

In the SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus).

Where does information in the retino-hypothalamic pathway about the light (day length) come from?

From melanopsin-containing ganglion cells.

What is special about melanopsin-containing ganglion cells?

This system still works in blind transgenic mice (missing rods and cones).

Melatonin is produced in the dark. What is the pathway that leads to this?

Neurons from the SCN contact (via the superior cervical ganglion (SCG) the pineal gland in the brain. The pineal gland produces the hormone melatonin during darkness.

Melatonin also has a feedback mechanism. Describe this.

The neurons of the SCN itself contain melatonin receptors which inhibit SCN activity as negative feedback signal during the darkness when melatonin is released by the pineal gland.

What can you say about the melatonin signal is diurnal and nocturnal animals?

It is present in both types of animals during the dark phase so these animals interpret this signal differently.

What can you tell about the molecular clock?

CLOCK and BMAL1 form dimers that serve as transcriptional enhancers for the synthesis of temporarily regulated proteins (CRY, PER1, PER2, PER3). These dimerize to CRY-PER2 and enter the nucleus. CRY inhibits the transcription of transcriptional enhancers (negative feedback loop). PER2 stimulates transcription of BMAL1 and CLOCK mRNA.

What happens to sleep as the age changes?

At first the amount of sleep decreases but as we get older it increases again. In such a way that a 60-year old person will sleep roughly half as much as a 7-year old person would.
Also, when you get older you lose your stage 4 sleep (and by the age of 90 you also lose your stage 3 sleep).

How can you recognize REM sleep an EEG?

It looks much like the awake state.

What are some symptoms of sleep deprivation?

  • Hallucinations
  • Irritability
  • Difficulty in concentrating - disorientation 

What happens to the homeostatis when you go to sleep?

  • Core temperature decreases
  • Growth hormone increases
  • Level of cortisol rises (peaks in the morning)

What does an EEG record?

The electric field changes.

What happens to the frequency when you go from waking to stage III/IV sleep?

The frequency decreases

What happens to your heart beat and respiration during non-REM and REM sleep?

Non-REM: slow down
REM-sleep: increase

What is meant with hemispherical sleep? What animals do this?

This means that the animal only sleeps with one half of the brain. This can be seen in dolphins and birds.

What are the four functions of sleep?

  • Energy conservation
  • Predator avoidance
  • Body restoration
  • Memory consolidation

What is remote-memory? When does this probably happen?

Hippocampus-dependent memory is transferred (consolidated) to cortical areas to render them hippocampus-independent.
This probably happens during slow wave sleep (SWS).

What happens to sleep if there is a lesion between the spinal cord and medulla?

The brain will be fully capable of being awake and shows SWS and REM sleep.

What happens to sleep if there is a lesion at the level of the midbrain?

An isolated forebrain is left. This will only show SWS, but no REM sleep.

What are the four different systems of the brain that are involved in active control of sleep?

  • A forebrain system that by itself can display SWS
  • A brainstem system that activates the forebrain into wakefulness
  • A pontine system that triggers REM sleep
  • A hypothalamic system that affects the brain regions above to determine whether the brain will be awake or asleep

What are hypocretin neurons?

Hypocretin neurons are active during the wake state. These neurons are found in the hypothalamic region and is thought to allow the switch between the three sleep states: awake, SWS and REM.

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