Vertebrate ecophysiology
22 important questions on Vertebrate ecophysiology
Which 4 factors determine energy budget
Active metabolism
Growth rate
Reproductive effort
Describe the difference in energy needed by large and small animals (+ explanation for it)
Can be explained by surface to volume ratio
For example: 1x1x1 cube -> volume 1, surface 6 -> ratio of 6 (surface/volume = 6)
3x3x3 cube -> volume 27, surface = 54 -> ratio of 2
Rank the 3 locomotion types by energy cost from high to low
(energy cost goes down the bigger the body mass is)
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Which groups/genus of fish did humans come from
Describe the circulatory system of a fish
2 chambered heart
Blood passes through 2 capillary beds: gill capillaries where blood is oxygenated + body capillaries where blood is delivered to tissue
Describe the circulation system of amphibians
Pulmocutaneous circuit to pick up oxygen through lungs and skin
Higher blood pressure than single circulation
3 chambered heart: 2 atria, 1 ventricle
Some oxygen poor blood mixes with oxygen rich blood
Describe the circulation system of mammals + why do endotherms require more oxygen than ectotherms
4 chambered heart
No mixing of poor/rich blood
More oxygen in order to maintain body temperature
Describe the evolution in the heart types (3 fish types, amphibians and mammals) (+ reason why/advantages)
Cartilaginous fish: 'fold' between atrium and ventricle -> more pressure when contracting
Bony fish: introduction of valves and thick-walled atrium -> prevent flowing back (valves), inhibits pressure loss when ventricle contracts (thick atrium)
Amphibians: double atrium, but one ventricle
Mammals: four chambers
Describe the different types of blood vessels + universal characteristic (capillaries, arteries, veins)
Capillaries: barely wider than red blood cell, thin walls, endothelium + basal lamina
Arteries + veins: endothelium, smooth muscle, connective tissue
Arteries: thick elastic walls
Veins: valves to prevent backflow
Describe the difference in area, velocity and pressure between capillaries, veins and arteries
Velocity: highest in arteries, slowest in capillaries (necessary for exchange of materials)
Pressure: highest in arteries, lowest in veins
Describe vasodilation and vasoconstriction + which substances can induce it
Constriction: contraction of smooth muscles in arterioles -> raises blood pressure
Nitric Oxide -> vasodilation
Endothelin -> vasoconstriction
Which 2 mechanisms regulate distribution of blood in capillary beds (+ how is blood flow regulated)
Precapillary sphincters that control flow of blood between arterioles and venules
Blood flow: regulated by nerve impulses, hormones and other chemicals
Describe the exchange of substances between blood and interstitial fluid (place, pressure, proteins, arterial/venous end, loss, name of fluid)
Blood pressure (BP) drives fluid out of capillaries, blood proteins pull fluid back.
Proteins: responsible for much of blood osmotic pressure (OP)
Arterial end of capillary: BP much higher than OP -> net loss of fluid from capillaries
Venous end of capillary: BP and OP almost equal -> on average net loss of fluid in capillaries
Lost fluid = lymph
Describe the (function of) the lymphatic system
Drains into veins in the neck
Valves prevent backflow
How does blood get its red colour (+ other colours in other animals)
4 heme groups per hemoglobin -> 4 oxygen molecules
Some Other animals: copper -> blue
Give the partial air pressure + concentration for oxygen in air and water (+ air to water ratios)
Air: 160 mm
Water: 160 mm
O2 concentration:
Air: 210 ml/L
Water 7 ml/L
Ratios:
Pressure: 1:1
Concentration: 30:1
Why does obtaining O2 from water require more efficiency than obtaining it from air + solution in fish
Efficiency increased by countercurrent exchange: blood flows in opposite direction to water passing gills -> blood always less saturated than water -> passive diffusion
Why do some fish have lungs + how did lungs evolve
Example: lungfish -> take air -> press into esophagus -> into lungs
Lungs evolved as protuberance of digestive system
Describe negative versus positive pressure breathing
Inhalation: buccal cavity expands, air is inhaled through nostrils -> nostrils close, glottis opens -> air into lungs
Exhalation: lungs compress -> press air oxygen poor and CO2 rich air into buccal cavity -> pressed out through nostrils
Negative: pulls air into lungs -> lung volume increases as rib muscles and diaphragm contract
How is breathing regulated in mammals (mechanisms, centers, sensors, modulation)
Breathing centers in medulla oblongata -> regulates rate and depth of breathing in response to pH changes in licor.
Sensors in aorta and carotids monitor O2 & CO2 in blood -> signal breathing control centers
Additional modulation in pons, next to medulla
Name and describe the four essential nutrients
Essential fatty acids: must be obtained from diet and include certain unsaturated fatty acids (fatty acids with one or more double bonds)
Vitamins: organic molecules required in very small amounts. 2 kinds: fat soluble and water soluble
Minerals: simple anorganic nutrients, usually only small amounts required
Describe the function of the caecum
Has appendix -> minor role in immunity
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