Summary: Sport And Exercise Psychology
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Motivation I
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What are the benefits of intrinsic motivation?
–Increased enjoyment (Brustad 1988)
–Better sportsmanship (Vallerand & Losier 1998) (less likely to cheat, sulk etc.)
–Lower drop-out rates (Gill et al., 1993) – more persistence
- Spend more time on the task (Vallerand, Gauvin & Halliwell, 1986) -
What factors would you use to encourage people to engage in sports?
Intrinsic motivation -
What are 2 disadvantages of extrinsic motivation?
–Increased anxiety in younger athletes about performing well (Scanlan & Lewthwaite 1984)
–Higher drop-out rates (Lindner et al., 1991)
Anxiety can cause drop outs as anxiety is an aversive emotion and so people will won't to avoid situations where they experience this anxiety -
What is a common limitation of sports literature?
Important: many of the research are done on children – they are much easier to recruit than elite athletes = be cautious – differentiate between children, adolescence and adults
- Good if you can get a study on children, then someone proves the same thing in adolescents, then adults -
What are the 2 predictions made by the competence motivation theory?
1. People will persist with activities in which they feel competent
- Sports participants should be higher in perceived competence than dropouts or non-participants
- Intrinsic motivation should be increased by perceived levels of competence
2. Intrinsic motivation should be associated with positive affect
- Feelings of enjoyment, confidence, self esteem --> i.e. the more competent you feel, the more you enjoy it -
What 2 concepts support the competence motivation theory?
•Perceived competence associated with engagement in sport
•Perceived competence associated with positive affect and behaviour (e.g. enjoyment) -
What 3 limitations of the competence motivation theory?
• The majority of studies focus on youth, college or recreational sport/exercise --> The same factors may not apply to elite professional sports who get paid
• Major issue: Little experimental work - most studies are descriptive or correlational --> they don’t say anything about the direction of causation
• Assumes that making someone believe they are competent will produce motivation- is this really true? --> You would need to do experimental/empirical research to find this out -
How might you test Competence Motivation Theory?
- Experimental manipulations e.g. false feedback - if you change the feedback about how the person is doing, you may see changes in their motivation
- Longitudinal study -> as an individual increases in skill does their enjoyment of the task increase
- Measure if there is a difference between training and performance. In training, the emphasis is on skill acquisition and mastery --> perhaps this is more enjoyable than the actual performance of the task where the emphasis is more on outcomes
- Experimental manipulations e.g. false feedback - if you change the feedback about how the person is doing, you may see changes in their motivation
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What are the predictions of the self-determination theory? How does this differ from a simplistic intrinsic/extrinsic account?
• Perception of purpose rewards should affect the level of intrinsic / extrinsic motivation
• Perception of purpose of rewards influenced by social factors (e.g. coaches, peers, parents etc) - critical point -> shows there is a role for the coach/sports psychologist to persuade the athlete to treat rewards as informational not controlling (you can change the athlete's perception of things)
• Informational rewards enhance intrinsic motivation
• Controlling rewards diminish intrinsic motivation
Simplistic intrinsic/extrinsic account:
•Athletes who compete for rewards should show less intrinsic motivation than amateurs/ non professional -
What did Pelletier et al. (2001) find?
Supported Self Determination Theory
Feelings of lack of competence and autonomy in handball players associated with intention to drop-out
-> suggesting autonomy is important in intrinsic motivation
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